Embedded Water

According to the Institute of Grocery Distribution, embedded water is considered the total amount of water used in the entire process of producing, retailing, and consuming a product. Most of the embedded water that we find today comes from mostly food products (65%) and industrial products (30.6%) such as cars, bicycles, TV's, etc (http://www.igd.com/Research/Sustainability/Water/3509/Embedded-Water-in-Food-Production/).

According to Analytical Technology, it takes 650 liters of water to produce 1 pound of wheat, 2500 liters of water to produce enough meat for a burger, and 4650 liters to produce a 300g beef steak. The substantial increase in animal agriculture has caused water shortages in areas where high volumes of crops and animal products are exported. India, the USA, and Australia are three examples where water shortages have arrived due to embedded water, thus resulting in wide-scale conversation efforts. It is estimated that the use of water for agricultural production globally amounts to over 6,000 billion cubic meters per year, which includes irrigation and soil water. This indicates that at every second, 200 million liters of water is used to grow food. Statistically, it has been shown that meat products vs. non-meat products have a much higher level of embedded water per kilogram. For one gram of beef, 16,000 liters of water are used in the process. (http://www.atiuk.com/blog/virtual-water-flows).

http://www.igd.com/Research/Sustainability/Water/3509/Embedded-Water-in-Food-Production/

According to the Water Footprint Network, having a water footprint can be calculated for an individual person, a process, a product's value chain for a business, river basin, or a nation. This information is important in understanding the water-related risk of utilizing products and materials for things we use in our every day lives. By doing so, this helps governments to help identify their role of water in the economy and water dependency, and for customers to understand just exactly how much water they use. The most important thing water footprints are used for is to help drive strategic action toward sustainable, efficient, and equitable water usage (http://waterfootprint.org/en/water-footprint/what-is-water-footprint/).

The documentary "Cowspiracy" discusses how the animal agriculture business is what is the leading cause of deforestation, water consumption and air pollution, and the responsibility of giving off more greenhouse gases than transportation. In the film, he discusses what might occur if we don't start taking better control of our water and carbon footprint. The director discusses how becoming a vegan, someone who doesn't eat any meat, eggs, or dairy, is able to take control of what is destroying our planet (http://www.cowspiracy.com/about/).

http://www.mdpi.com/2071-1050/7/7/8522/html

Embedded water, or virtual water, is described as mainly usage from domestic, industrial, and agricultural aspects. Domestic usage is consisted of things such as washing the dishes, taking a shower, cooking,etc. This aspect consumes about 137 liters a day on average. Industrial usage of water consists of making and wearing materials such as cotton, paper, clothes, etc. This aspect of embedded water uses about 167 liters of water a day. Lastly, animal agriculture uses almost 3496 liters of water each day, which is almost 26 times the amount of water we normally use in our homes. 

On average, in the industrial beef production system, there is an average of about 3 years until the cow is slaughtered. During those three years, a cow will consume nearly 1300 kilograms of grains. This amount of grain consumed by the cow is almost 306000 liters of water. 92% of the water we use is used in the production of food (http://www.angelamorelli.com/water/).

Lichen Project

 North side of the tree

 West side

 South side

 East side

Sulfur Dioxide and Nitrogen Dioxide

Sulfur dioxide (SOx) and Nitrogen dioxide (NOx) are considered emissions that are originated from the combustion of generated power such as air conditioning, power plants, generated heat, etc. and the processing of paper development chemicals such as pulping chemicals. According to the National Council for Air and Improvement, Electric utilities are the leading sector of SOx and NOx emissions. Sulfur oxide emissions are mainly produced by stationary sources, mainly electric utilities, and Nitrogen oxides emissions are mainly related to transportation-related sources, or mobile sources. Sulfur oxide in the United States has steadily decreased in-between 1980-2005, even though the production of paper products have steadily increased by 67% over this period of time.

SOx and NOx emissions measured in tons.

https://www.xcelenergy.com/staticfiles/xe/Corporate/CRR2011/clean-energy/reducing-power-plant-emissions/proposed-reductions.html

According to the Environmental Protection Agency (EPA), Nitrogen dioxide and Sulfur dioxide in the air can damage the leaves of plants, decrease their ability to preform photosynthesis, making them unable to produce food and energy, and decreasing their ability to grow. In 2011, the EPA proposed existing secondary standards for NOx and SOx to directly protect plants from the dangerous first-hand effects of these air pollutants. Also, when these pollutants are deposited on land and in small bodies of water, they can acidify and over fertilize plants with harmful, indirect effects on the plants themselves and the soil, water quality, and the wildlife surrounding.

NOx and SOx emissions from ship.
http://worldmaritimenews.com/archives/133875/how-will-marine-air-emissions-changes-affect-shippers/

Obtaining NOx and SOx is extremely dangerous for the health and well-being of plants, the effects on humans is dangerous as well. The Environmental Protection Agency AIRTrends 1995 Summary, Nitrogen dioxide can irritate the lungs and can lower the resistance of respiratory infections such as the flu. There is no clear answer of what the short-term exposures of Nitrogen dioxide are, but frequent and high exposure to this air pollutant is known to cause acute respiratory illness in small children. Sulfur dioxide exposure in high amounts is known to cause noticeable effects on breathing, respiratory illness, and aggravation of pre-existing cardiovascular disease.  Children, the elderly, people with asthma, and people with cardiovascular disease or chronic lung disease are the most susceptible to the health effects of SOx.

Because of the exposure of NOx and SOx, lichens obtain adverse effects. According to the National Lichens and Air Quality Database, lichens physiological responses to these air pollutants are affecting the growth and distribution within the ecosystem. With exposure to SOx specifically, lichens are not able to survive if they are exposed for an extended period of time. Nitrogen dioxide on the other hand, does not have sufficient exposure thresholds for exposure to lichens, but other compounds of nitrogen are usually components of acid rain. The National Lichens and Air Quality Database also states that Sulfur dioxide exposure causes reduced photosynthesis, reduced respiration, decreased chlorophyll content, increased electrolyte leakage and decrease in potassium levels, and reduced nitrogen fixation. Sulfur dioxide is to be considered more damaging to the lichen than Nitrogen dioxide.

Candelaria conclor located on a tree trunk located in Castalia Quarry in Erie County, Ohio.

http://bobklips.com/lateautumn2008.html

EPA Air Quality Control

According to the EPA, Environmental Protection Agency, State Implementation Plans (SIP's) are enforced for every state in order to designate areas of the United States that are attained (meeting) or non-attained (not meeting) the standard requirements specified. SIP's show the EPA which states' air quality programs has the correct components in order to meet the NAAQS (National Ambient Air Quality Standards) and are also designed to prevent air quality deterioration for areas within attainment and to reduce the common pollutants in non-attainment areas to meet the required numbers. The Clean Air Act (CAA), established in the 1970's, requires each individual state to establish their own local air quality control agencies monitored by the EPA. This act was put in place to protect the public's well-being caused by the numerous pollutants within the air.

http://www.simmonsfirm.com/healthy-lung-month-get-the-facts-about-the-clean-air-act/

This image gives a few facts and statistics about the Clean Air Act that was established in 1970. It describes how industrial production is a major contributor to greenhouse gases, how much air humans need on a daily basis, and the number of people at risk of air pollutants. For more information on the Clean Air Act, please visit www.simmonsfirm.com. 



The NAAQS has six "criteria" pollutants along with a set of standards for each one. According to the EPA's website, these six pollutants include: ozone, particulate matter, carbon monoxide, nitrogen oxides, sulfur dioxide, and lead. The EPA describes these pollutants as "criteria" pollutants because they regulate the developing human and environmental health-based criteria that regulates acceptable levels. Human health limits are called primary standards, while environmental and property damage are called secondary standards. Each pollutant is monitored by the EPA with two different kinds of air pollutant trends. The first is air concentration based on concentrations of the pollutant in ambient (outside) air recorded at a various locations throughout the United States, and the second is emissions based from estimates of engineering information from the total amount of tons of the specific pollutant that is released into the air every year.

http://www.eoearth.org/view/article/170853/

This image describes the primary and secondary standards for each of the six criteria air pollutants. This is the NAAQS required levels and averaging time for each pollutant and also describes the required amount for each to be considered an attainment area. 

	Primary Standards		Secondary Standards	Ohio Attainment Status
Pollutant	Level	Averaging Time
Carbon monoxide	9 ppm (10 mg/m3)	Eight-hour	None	Full Attainment
	35 ppm (40 mg/m3)	One-hour	None	Full Attainment
Lead	0.15 µg/m3	Rolling three-month Average	Same	Map
	1.5 µg/m3	Quarterly average	Same	Full Attainment
Nitrogen dioxide	0.053 ppm (100 /m3)	Annual (Arithmetic mean)	Same	Full Attainment
	100 ppb	one-hour	None	Full Attainment
Particulate matter (PM10)	150 µg/m3	24-hour	Same	Full Attainment
Particulate matter (PM2.5)	12.0 µg/m3	2012 annual (Arithmetic mean)	Same	Map
	15.0 µg/m3	1997 annual (Arithmetic mean)	Same	Full Attainment
	35 µg/m3	24-hour	Same	Full Attainment
Ozone	0.075 ppm (2008 std)	Eight-hour	Same	Map
	0.08 ppm (1997 std)	Eight-hour	Same	Full Attainment
	0.12 ppm	One-hour	Same	Full Attainment
Sulfur dioxide	75 ppb	One-hour	None	Map

http://www.epa.state.oh.us/dapc/general/naaqs.aspx

This chart indicates which levels of the criteria pollutants are in full attainment in Ohio and which levels are in non-attainment, along with a map of where each non-attainment area is located throughout the state of Ohio. 

In the state of Ohio, the EPA classifieds this state as "full attainment"for most of the state, besides a few areas. Carbon monoxide levels in Ohio have the appropriate levels of 9 ppm per eight hours and 35 ppm for one hour. Lead levels in the state of Ohio have full attainment at 1.5 micro-grams per cubic meter of air for a quarterly average, but the 0.15 micro-grams per cubic meter of air for a rolling three month period have non-attainment areas in Cleveland, Logan County, and Fulton County. For Nitrogen Dioxide, it has full attainment levels for 0.053 ppm annually, and 100 ppb for one hour. Levels of particulate matter at PM10 for 150 micro-grams per cubic meter of air for a 24 hour period is at full attainment and the particulate matter at PM2.5 for 15.0 and 35 micro-grams per cubic meter of air, but the particulate matter at PM 2.5 for 12 micro-grams per cubic meter has non-attainment areas located near Cleveland, OH for the counties of Cuyahoga, OH and Lorain, OH. Ozone levels in Ohio are at full attainment for 0.08 ppm per eight hours and 0.12 ppm per one hour, while ozone levels at 0.075 ppm per eight hours has a non-attainment area in Ohio located in Cleveland/Akron/Lorain (includes the counties of Lorain, Medina, Cuyahoga, Summit, Portage, Geauga, Lake, and Ashtabula), Columbus (includes the counties of Madison, Franklin, Delaware, Knox, Licking, and Fairfield) and Cincinnati area (includes the countries of Butler, Warren, Clinton, Hamilton, Clermont, Campbell, Dearborn, Boone, and Kenton). Sulfur dioxide levels at 75 ppb at one hour have non-attainment areas in Ohio including the counties of Campbell, Clermont, Morgan, Washington, Jefferson, and Lake.

http://blog.cleveland.com/metro/2010/11/air_pollution_expected_to_be_h.html

This image shows the air pollution across the downtown area of Cleveland, OH. This is known to occur more prominent when temperature inversions trap the air pollution from mobile sources that are closest to the ground.

https://www.ohio.edu/mechanical/thermo/Intro/Chapt.1_6/steamplant/GavinLPT/Gavin.jpg

This image shows the Gavin power plant located in Chestire, OH that is proposed to service about 10,000 homes near Athens, OH. This plant is considered the largest power plant in Ohio that runs on coal power and is owned and operated by AEP (American Electric Power). 

The air quality in Ohio is regulated by the NAAQS's six criteria pollutants, but is also monitored by regulatory emissions reports every 15th of April. These reports identify the emission quality and quantity of the previous year. Also, Ohio EPA is regulated by obtaining air pollution control permits to monitor and estimate exactly how much of the criteria pollutants are being emitted into the each year.


Sources:
http://www.epa.state.oh.us/dapc/sip/sip.aspx