Water Privatization

According to Food and Water Watch, having bottled water means that massive corporations profit from the production of privatizing water which means there is less support for the public water supply. Corporations like Nestle Waters, Pepsico, and Coca-Cola sell single-use plastic bottles that occupies our oceans, landfills, and other areas that costs a thousand times more than what it costs to drink and use the water that comes from the tap. As bottled water has become the beverage of convenience, it is destroying the public infrastructure for the public. Public sources of water has been a source for water for over a hundred years and now corporations like Nestle want to privatize this.

Food Empowerment Project states that although most people know that the Earth is composed of about two-thirds of water, most of which is saltwater, only 2.5 percent of freshwater is suitable for drinking and growing food. Furthermore, less than 1% is available to humans and ecosystems because most of it remains frozen in the the Arctic and Antarctic regions. Today around 1.1 billion people (one-sixth of the world's population do not have adequate access to clean drinking water and about 2.6 billion people lack the proper sanitation. Researchers state that by 2025, about two-thirds of the population will be living in water stressed areas.

https://enveconunca.wordpress.com/2013/04/24/water-privatization-an-economic-solution-or-disaster/

This Project also states that Animal agriculture industries use and pollute a disproportionate share of water even though millions die every year due to the lack of clean water. As the scarcity increases, water's value as an economic commodity rises. About 90 percent of the freshwater drinking supply has remained under public control. In areas where privatization of water has been established, it has caused chronic water shortage problems. This is because corporations, by nature, are more concerned with making capital than saving people's and communities' best interest, has in turn created corruption, lack of corporate accountability, loss of local agency, weakened water quality standards, and sleep rate hikes that eliminate the poor population's access to water. As Nestle is considered one of the largest corporations in the world, it is also considered a water business and is currently leasing out around 50 spring sites throughout the United States. In many of these places that Nestle currently operates on, it is known that they have unlawfully extracted water from aquifers, engaged in price-gouging tactics, and polarized communities.

https://mikebrantley.wordpress.com/2013/11/10/the-scary-unbiblical-privatization-of-water/

The Wall Street Journal states that nearly 73 million people are served with the help of a private company. Richard Little explains that the privatization investment would cost as much as 1 trillion dollars within the next 25 years. He then goes on to state that the privatization of water offers economies of scale wherein a single company can provide the financial and human resources to serve many small systems in a far more cost-effective manner. Government-owned enterprises, on the other-hand, do not have rate structures that reflect the true cost of the service. Thus, making small publicly owned water utilities lack the means of not only making capital investments, but to also hire the professional staff needed to meet increasingly stringent water-quality standards.

Dead Zones

What are Dead Zones?

According to the National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration, the term "dead zone" is a more common name for hypoxia, which refers to a reduced level of oxygen in the water. Hypoxic zones are areas in ocean that have much lower oxygen concentration in which animal life suffocates and dies. One of the largest dead zones forms in the Gulf of Mexico every spring. When farmers prep their lands every spring with fertilization, the run off from the rainfall gathers in streams, rivers, and lakes and creates a disturbance of the animal life within the area. These hypoxia areas occur naturally throughout the world, but scientists are concerned about the areas that are created or enhanced by human activity. There are many factors that influence the contribution to a dead zone such as physical, chemical, and biological stressors, but the issue of nutrient pollution is considered the primary cause of dead zones created by humans. The excess nutrients that run off from the land or as piped wastewater are capable of stimulating the overgrowth of algae. When an overgrowth of algae occurs, the algae sinks to the bottom of the body of water and decomposes. This process of decomposition consumes the oxygen source and depletes the supply needed to sustain a healthy living environment for the animal life. These dead zones are usually located in many areas in the United States, but particularly along the East Coast, the Gulf of Mexico, and the Great Lakes. The NOAA states that there is not a specific country or area that is immune to producing a dead zone. The second largest dead zone is located within the United States, which is in the northern Gulf of Mexico.

http://theterramarproject.org/thedailycatch/world-watches-dead-zones-algae-ruin-water/

Vast algae blooms in northern Europe's Baltic Sea fuels annual aquatic dead zones, where the oxygen levels are too low to support most animal life. 

How Many/Where are They Located?

The Scientific American states that a new study has been reported in which there are 405 identified dead zones throughout the world. In the 1960's, there were 49 identified areas with animal life depletion due to the lack of oxygen. The largest identified dead zone lies in the Baltic Sea and it lacks oxygen year-round. The study also indicated that around 235,000 tons of food is lost to hypoxia in the Gulf of Mexico. This amount is enough to feed 75% of the average brown shrimp harvested from Louisiana gulf. 

http://www.livescience.com/49347-lake-erie-dead-zone-drought.html

Satellite image of toxic algae bloom in Lake Erie in 2011. 

Dead Zone's Impact on the Ecosystem?

According to The National Center for Biotechnology Information, hypoxia affects thousands of km2 of marine waters all over the world. This causes mass mortality of animals,bethic defaunation, and a decline in fishery production in many places. Due to the growth of the population and global warming, over the past few decades, the severity and frequency of hypoxia has increased dramatically and is likely to be an issue in the future. The effect of hypoxia on marine animals has an effect on reproduction, development, growing, and feeding. Some fish species and marine organisms are able to detect hypoxia and are able to actively avoid it. 

Is Water a Human Right?

According to UNRIC, the United Nations National Assembly in 2010 brought up the topic of water and sanitation and how it should be declared a human right. This source states that water being considered a human right is more-so focused on the quality; making sure that each person who has it is able to have clean, safe drinking water and isn't able to get sick from it is the biggest issue rather than the quantity. Having the right to water is not specifically stated in the Universal Declaration of Human Rights, but without this access, other acts stated in the Declaration would not be fulfilled. These acts include "the right to a standard of living adequate for the health and well-being" and taken into account for "Motherhood and childhood are entitled to special care and assistance". The General Assembly in 2010 declared access to water as a human right by Ms. De Albuquerque stating "Everyone has the right to water, no matter where he/she lives". Having the UN recognize that water is a human right, having safe and clean drinking water and sanitation is a current pressure that local and national authorities are facing to ensure that they are able to provide a better quality infrastructure for drainage systems.  These factors will increase significantly over the years due to the rise in the population growth and rising incomes that lead to an increase in water consumption, as well as waste production. According to the UN World Water Development Report, by 2050, at least one in four people will be likely affected in their country by chronic or reoccurring shortages of freshwater.

http://wheelockglobalcauses.org/human-rights/on-water-and-cell-phones-which-is-a-more-basic-
human-right/

Right to Water states that having the human right to water entitles everyone without discrimination to sufficient, safe, acceptable, physically accessible and affordable water for personal and domestic use. Having the right to human sanitation entitles everyone without discrimination to physical and affordable access to sanitation, in all spheres of life, which is safe, hygienic, secure, socially and culturally acceptable, which provides for privacy and ensures dignity. Sanitation is defined as a system for the collection, transport, disposal or reuse of human excreta and associated hygiene. 

http://www.ohchr.org/EN/Issues/WaterAndSanitation/SRWater/Pages/Overview.aspx


The World Health Organization states that the  content of the right to water may be defined as a right to access water of sufficient cleanliness and in sufficient quantities to meet individuals needs. As a minimum, the quantity must suffice to meet basic human needs in terms of drinking, bathing, cleaning, cooking, and sanitation. These correspond to those defined under a right to adequate housing. The minimum quantity of household water is dependent on its specific use; drinking water must be safe for consumption, whereas lower standards may be set for water sanitation. Having the right to water as a part of a right to food is more complex. The right to water as part of the right to food is more complex. While drinking and cooking water would be protected, water for food production would probably not be covered under the minimum needs in arid areas, as agriculture production requires such high amounts of water that individual household needs must first be ensured. The same goes for water for industrial use: although industry and electricity are important for ensuring an adequate standard of living, these uses must not infringe the right to household water.

Aquaculture

Aquaculture, according to the National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration, is known as fish or shellfish farming that refers to the breeding, rearing, and harvesting of plants and animals in all types of water environments including ponds, rivers, lakes, and the ocean. This produces food fish, sport fish, baiting fish, ornamental fish, crustaceans, mollusks, algae, sea vegetables, and fish eggs. There are two types of aquaculture: marine and freshwater aquaculture. Marine aquaculture refers to the culturing of species that live in the ocean. U. S. marine aquaculture primarily produces oysters, clams, mussels, shrimp, and salmon as well as lesser amounts of cod, moi, yellowtail, barramundi, seabass, and seabream. This type of aquaculture can take place in the ocean (that is, in cages, on the seafloor, or suspended in a water column) or on in-land, manmade systems such as ponds or tanks. Recirculating aquaculture systems that reduce, reuse, and recycle water and waste can support some marine species. Freshwater aquaculture produces species that are native to rivers, lakes, and streams. U. S. freshwater aquaculture is dominated by catfish but also produces trout, tilapia, and bass. This type of aquaculture takes place primarily in ponds and on in-land manmade systems such as recirculating aquaculture systems.

An example of aquaculture that takes place in Piketon, OH sponsored by The Ohio State University.

(http://cfaes.osu.edu/news/articles/participants-value-ohio-state%E2%80%99s-aquaculture-programs)

Marine aquaculture in the United States contributes to the seafood supply, supports commercial fisheries, restores habitat and at-risk species, and maintains economic activity in coastal communities and at working waterfronts in every coastal state. About 40% of the salmon caught in Alaska and about 80-90% in the Pacific Northwest start their lives in a hatchery - contributing over 270 million dollars to commercial fishery. Hatchery stock is used to rebuild oyster reefs, enhance wild fish populations, and rebuild threatened and endangered abalone and corals.  The Unites States is the leading global importer of fish and fishery products, with 91% of the seafood we eat originating abroad - half of which is from aquaculture. Driven by imports, the U. S. seafood trade deficit has grown over $11.2 billion annually.

In contrast to world capture fisheries production, which has essentially stagnated since the mid-1980's, aquaculture has maintained an annual growth rate of 8.3% worldwide, making it the fastest worldwide growing form of food production in the world. In the United States sales of domestic marine aquaculture have grown on average 13% per year from 2007-2011 led by increases in oyster and salmon production. Global production is dominated by Asia (89%), while China alone accounts for 62%.

An example of aquaculture on the West Coast. 

(http://www.rafts.org.uk/aquaculture/)

The World Wildlife Organization has identified that farmed fish and shrimp as priority commodities, because collectively, they represent the largest share of global farmed seafood market. Consequently, they can have a significant negative impact on the places and species we seek to protect. The rapid expansion of the aquaculture industry has not come without impacts. As a conservation organization the WWF is concerned about the negative effects the industry has had - and will continue to have - on the environment and the society. Approximately 85% of the world's marine stocks are either fully exploited or overfished, driving accelerated growth in the farmed seafood industry.

Lichen Study Project

During the Lichen study, Group C was designated a specific area to study and record data within the university setting. The group was given the southern portion of the Ohio University campus, which includes the beginning of South Green Drive closest to Ping Recreation center all the way to Stewart Street. Each member selected their own tree to observe and measure the lichen content of. For the tree that I had chosen, it was located near South Green Drive and the Ohio University Golf Course. The exact coordinates of where the tree is located is 39°19'18"N & 82°5'40"W and can be spotted across the street from Adams Hall.

As you can see in the pictures above, the tree is located within walking distance from South Green Drive. From the tree, it took about four to five steps to reach the road. 

This tree is identified as a maple tree because of the distinguishable opposite leaf arrangement. This tree has simple leaves which means that it has single leafs instead of multiple, smaller leaflets. Located below are the template measurement pictures that indicates the direction and the lichen in each quadrant. The lichen grading scale has been implemented ranging from zero to three. The zero indicates that there is no lichen present and the 3 indicates that the lichen covers over 10% of the specific quadrant. 

This picture indicates the North side of the tree. 

This picture indicates the South side of the tree.

                                              This picture indicates the East side of the tree.

This picture indicates the West side of the tree.

The numbers below indicate the amount of lichen in each quadrant.

To find the standard deviation, a measurement used to show the variation there is from the average mean, you must first calculate the grand total of the values and divide by the total amount of values in each quadrant.

North quadrant: 2-3-2-1 Total = 8

South quadrant: 0-0-0-0 Total = 0

East quadrant: 2-0-0-0 Total = 2

West quadrant: 1-0-0-0 Total = 1

Grand total = 11

11/16 = .688

The next step is to determine the difference of each data point from the average and square the results. 

0 - .688 = (-.688)^2 = .473

1 - .688 = (.312)^2 = .097

2 - .688 = (1.312)^2 = 1.72

3 - .688 = (2.31)^2 = 5.34

Lastly, you must determine the average of these values and take the square root of all of them accordingly You must divide but the total number (16) minus 1. In this case I will be indicating the square root function with brackets. 

[1.72 + 5.34 + 1.72 + .097 + .473 + .473 + .473 + .473 + .097 + .473 +.473 +.473 + 1.72 + .473 + .473 + .473/ (16 - 1)]

The calculated standard deviation for this specific tree is 1.01.

So, What is a Lichen?

According to Decoded Science, lichens are considered to be a hybrid and have a symbiotic relationship between an algae and a fungus. Most fungi are not able to survive on their own and need algae as a partner. Since lichen has a fungal part, it is able to produce its own food through photosynthesis. By cohabiting with fungus, the algae is able to live within a variety of different environments. This relationship is both beneficial to both parties because the fungal part of the lichen needs food from photosynthesis and the algae part of the lichen bonded to the fungus makes the environment it can live in have a wider variety than an algae on it's own. 

The Relationship Between  Lichen and Air Quality

Lichens are an excellent indicator for long term air quality. Certain species such as Usnea are only capable of growing in areas with good air quality. Other species are able to grow in environments to indicate poor air quality. This is extremely useful in locating the air quality in a specific location, Overtime, the changes in lichen species can reveal changes in the air quality. According to Concord.org, hardy lichens can be used as bioindicators, especially for sulfur dioxide. These bioindicators are considered living organisms that respond in a way that changes the environment. 

Who is Beatrix Potter and what is Her Contribution to the Lichen Study?

The Scientist states that Beatrix Potter was the first person in Britain to write a scientific paper on the topic of symbiosis in lichen. She conducted experiments in her kitchen and recorded all of her observations of algal and fungal properties. 

Candellara Sp. Yellow

CNALH states that Candellara is a yellow colored lichen that is located on rock or bark often in relatively eutrophicated habitats. They are located in pan-artic and southwards into north temperate regions.

(http://www.lichens.ie/lichen-descriptions/foliose/candelaria-concolor/)

Physica Sp. Blue/Green

This is a type of algae that is found on bark and can grow in urban areas and can even grow in areas of forestation. The color is noted as greenish, blueish, or gray. 

Methodology

When looking for a tree to observe, you must find a large enough tree to collect data from and it must be a tree with alternating branches. When measuring the lichen, it is important to measure three feet above the ground because it is around the area of peak prime growth and a breeding area. The equipment used for this experiment was the four quadrant tool. This was important in collecting the accurate amount of data for each 4" x 4" area. This data will be used for graduate research at Ohio University to observe the amount of lichen in certain locations on campus to observe the air quality. 

River Erosion

According to Alex Jackson, erosion is considered the breakdown of material by an agent. With the case of the river, the agent is considered water. The water in the river has the capability to erode the river's channel and load. This load is consisted of eroded material, usually rock that is then transported within the river until it deposits the load. This load can be eroded laterally and vertically. With lateral erosion, the river channel is made deeper, while vertical erosion is made longer. 

A Level Geography states that there are four main types of river erosion that can embed in the beds and banks. These main types of river erosion include hydraulic action, abrasion, attrition, and corrosion. Hydraulic action occurs when the pressure of water breaks away rock particles from the river bed and bank. The force of the water will hit the bank, and then further push the water into its cracks. The air then becomes compressed and overtime the riverbed may collapse due to too much pressure and can lead to undercutting. Abrasion is when there are pebbles in the bed of the river and it causes them to turn hollows into potholes. This happens when the pebbles in the depression are spinning around near the floor of the channel river. Attrition occurs when eroded rocks collide and break into smaller fragments. Thus, making the rocks more smooth and rounded. This type of river erosion does not actually erode the river. Finally, corrosion occurs when carbon dioxide dissolves in a river to form a weak acid which dissolves rocks. This is common where limestone and chalk are most commonly found in the channel. 

Shows the sediments in the river carried downstream by the water flow. 

(http://www.fondriest.com/environmental-measurements/parameters/hydrology/sediment-transport-deposition/#std1a)

Fondriest Environmental states that sediments of any river can be found nearly in any body of water. When the sediment is floating within the water column, it is considered suspended, referencing the term "suspended load". "Bedded load" is considered to be the sediments at the bottom of the water. The bed load is the portion of the sediment transport that rolls, slides, or bounces along the bottom of the waterway. This can happen when the force of the water flow is strong enough to overcome the weight and cohesion of the sediment. The suspended load is considered different than the suspended sediment in that the load is considered to be the the amount of sediment that is carried downstream within the water column by the water flow. The wash load is a subset of the suspended load. This load is considered to be the smaller particles that remain in permanent suspension. In flow periods the wash and suspended load can be indistinguishable. The solution load is considered a special method of transportation in which the particles are dissolved into the water so only rocks, such as limestone or chalk can be transported in solution. 

River erosion that has occurred on the banks of the Licking River bank in Newark, OH.

(http://www.epa.ohio.gov/pic/media/licking_river2007.aspx)

Water and Urbanization

According to the Population Reference Bureau, within the last 200 years, the world's urban population has shifted from 2% to 50%. The growth of these urban areas come from an increase in migration and the fertility of these urban populations. It is also due to the increase in desires of what these urban areas have to offer versus rural areas. With the availability of more jobs and resources, more and more populations are moving away from these rural areas and overcrowding these cities which are increasing the scarcity of the resources already there. These urban populations change their environment through their consumption of food, energy, water, and land. Because of this, the urban population begins to pollute the environment they live in and reduces the health and quality of life. Urban areas consume more food and durable products than any other area. Also, urban areas increasingly use aggregate energy use, despite the rise in new technology. Because of the urban consumption of energy, it can create heat islands that can change local weather patterns. This creates an area where cities are more warmer than rural areas due to the radiation of heat back into the atmosphere in heavily populated areas. Some urban environmental health problems include inadequate water and sanitation, lack of rubbish disposal, and industrial pollution. Some health problems of urbanization include respiratory infections and parasitic diseases. In some major cities, researches have found that the rate of infant mortality are higher in cities that are growing more rapidly than of those who are not. Much of what urbanization is dependent on how the populations behave with their consumption and living patterns. Since the 1950's, many cities in developed countries have met environmental urban challenges. Having a strong urban governance is essential in making an adequate progress of reverse some effects of urbanization.(http://www.prb.org/Publications/Articles/2004/UrbanizationAnEnvironmentalForcetoBeReckonedWith.aspx).

http://www.jameskoss.com/2013_09_01_archive.html

The image above is displaying the before and after of urbanization in New York. For more information, please visit the following web address. 

https://www.fhwa.dot.gov/planning/processes/statewide/related/highway_functional_classifications/section06.cfm

This image described the urbanization areas located in the state of Ohio.

http://defenceforumindia.com/urbanization-the-only-solution-for-a-modern-india-1536

This map shows the percent of urbanized areas throughout the world.

According to The Nature Conservancy and Harvard University released a new study indicating the effect of staggering urban growth on nature and people finds that if we don't improve urban planning now, we may lose some animals, plants, and natural resources for good. In 2007, the United Nations revealed that by 2020, the worlds populations that live in cities will rise from 50% to 60%. According to the report, humans are building the equivalent of a city the size of Vancouver every single week. Most of these developments are occurring in cities such as China, India, and Africa. Natural areas that are most affected by urbanization are more likely to have the highest concentrations of endemic species. 8% of species of vertebrae have been labeled endangered due to the effects of urban development. Economic concerns have emerged through urban growth. The accidental or intentional start of fires increase, which in return cost additional amount of dollars that can threaten homes, businesses, and buildings. It is the population and the governments responsibility to protect the biodiversity and the land in which we live on (http://www.sciencedaily.com/releases/2008/06/080610182856.htm).

Embedded Water

According to the Institute of Grocery Distribution, embedded water is considered the total amount of water used in the entire process of producing, retailing, and consuming a product. Most of the embedded water that we find today comes from mostly food products (65%) and industrial products (30.6%) such as cars, bicycles, TV's, etc (http://www.igd.com/Research/Sustainability/Water/3509/Embedded-Water-in-Food-Production/).

According to Analytical Technology, it takes 650 liters of water to produce 1 pound of wheat, 2500 liters of water to produce enough meat for a burger, and 4650 liters to produce a 300g beef steak. The substantial increase in animal agriculture has caused water shortages in areas where high volumes of crops and animal products are exported. India, the USA, and Australia are three examples where water shortages have arrived due to embedded water, thus resulting in wide-scale conversation efforts. It is estimated that the use of water for agricultural production globally amounts to over 6,000 billion cubic meters per year, which includes irrigation and soil water. This indicates that at every second, 200 million liters of water is used to grow food. Statistically, it has been shown that meat products vs. non-meat products have a much higher level of embedded water per kilogram. For one gram of beef, 16,000 liters of water are used in the process. (http://www.atiuk.com/blog/virtual-water-flows).

http://www.igd.com/Research/Sustainability/Water/3509/Embedded-Water-in-Food-Production/

According to the Water Footprint Network, having a water footprint can be calculated for an individual person, a process, a product's value chain for a business, river basin, or a nation. This information is important in understanding the water-related risk of utilizing products and materials for things we use in our every day lives. By doing so, this helps governments to help identify their role of water in the economy and water dependency, and for customers to understand just exactly how much water they use. The most important thing water footprints are used for is to help drive strategic action toward sustainable, efficient, and equitable water usage (http://waterfootprint.org/en/water-footprint/what-is-water-footprint/).

The documentary "Cowspiracy" discusses how the animal agriculture business is what is the leading cause of deforestation, water consumption and air pollution, and the responsibility of giving off more greenhouse gases than transportation. In the film, he discusses what might occur if we don't start taking better control of our water and carbon footprint. The director discusses how becoming a vegan, someone who doesn't eat any meat, eggs, or dairy, is able to take control of what is destroying our planet (http://www.cowspiracy.com/about/).

http://www.mdpi.com/2071-1050/7/7/8522/html

Embedded water, or virtual water, is described as mainly usage from domestic, industrial, and agricultural aspects. Domestic usage is consisted of things such as washing the dishes, taking a shower, cooking,etc. This aspect consumes about 137 liters a day on average. Industrial usage of water consists of making and wearing materials such as cotton, paper, clothes, etc. This aspect of embedded water uses about 167 liters of water a day. Lastly, animal agriculture uses almost 3496 liters of water each day, which is almost 26 times the amount of water we normally use in our homes. 

On average, in the industrial beef production system, there is an average of about 3 years until the cow is slaughtered. During those three years, a cow will consume nearly 1300 kilograms of grains. This amount of grain consumed by the cow is almost 306000 liters of water. 92% of the water we use is used in the production of food (http://www.angelamorelli.com/water/).

Lichen Project

 North side of the tree

 West side

 South side

 East side

Sulfur Dioxide and Nitrogen Dioxide

Sulfur dioxide (SOx) and Nitrogen dioxide (NOx) are considered emissions that are originated from the combustion of generated power such as air conditioning, power plants, generated heat, etc. and the processing of paper development chemicals such as pulping chemicals. According to the National Council for Air and Improvement, Electric utilities are the leading sector of SOx and NOx emissions. Sulfur oxide emissions are mainly produced by stationary sources, mainly electric utilities, and Nitrogen oxides emissions are mainly related to transportation-related sources, or mobile sources. Sulfur oxide in the United States has steadily decreased in-between 1980-2005, even though the production of paper products have steadily increased by 67% over this period of time.

SOx and NOx emissions measured in tons.

https://www.xcelenergy.com/staticfiles/xe/Corporate/CRR2011/clean-energy/reducing-power-plant-emissions/proposed-reductions.html

According to the Environmental Protection Agency (EPA), Nitrogen dioxide and Sulfur dioxide in the air can damage the leaves of plants, decrease their ability to preform photosynthesis, making them unable to produce food and energy, and decreasing their ability to grow. In 2011, the EPA proposed existing secondary standards for NOx and SOx to directly protect plants from the dangerous first-hand effects of these air pollutants. Also, when these pollutants are deposited on land and in small bodies of water, they can acidify and over fertilize plants with harmful, indirect effects on the plants themselves and the soil, water quality, and the wildlife surrounding.

NOx and SOx emissions from ship.
http://worldmaritimenews.com/archives/133875/how-will-marine-air-emissions-changes-affect-shippers/

Obtaining NOx and SOx is extremely dangerous for the health and well-being of plants, the effects on humans is dangerous as well. The Environmental Protection Agency AIRTrends 1995 Summary, Nitrogen dioxide can irritate the lungs and can lower the resistance of respiratory infections such as the flu. There is no clear answer of what the short-term exposures of Nitrogen dioxide are, but frequent and high exposure to this air pollutant is known to cause acute respiratory illness in small children. Sulfur dioxide exposure in high amounts is known to cause noticeable effects on breathing, respiratory illness, and aggravation of pre-existing cardiovascular disease.  Children, the elderly, people with asthma, and people with cardiovascular disease or chronic lung disease are the most susceptible to the health effects of SOx.

Because of the exposure of NOx and SOx, lichens obtain adverse effects. According to the National Lichens and Air Quality Database, lichens physiological responses to these air pollutants are affecting the growth and distribution within the ecosystem. With exposure to SOx specifically, lichens are not able to survive if they are exposed for an extended period of time. Nitrogen dioxide on the other hand, does not have sufficient exposure thresholds for exposure to lichens, but other compounds of nitrogen are usually components of acid rain. The National Lichens and Air Quality Database also states that Sulfur dioxide exposure causes reduced photosynthesis, reduced respiration, decreased chlorophyll content, increased electrolyte leakage and decrease in potassium levels, and reduced nitrogen fixation. Sulfur dioxide is to be considered more damaging to the lichen than Nitrogen dioxide.

Candelaria conclor located on a tree trunk located in Castalia Quarry in Erie County, Ohio.

http://bobklips.com/lateautumn2008.html

EPA Air Quality Control

According to the EPA, Environmental Protection Agency, State Implementation Plans (SIP's) are enforced for every state in order to designate areas of the United States that are attained (meeting) or non-attained (not meeting) the standard requirements specified. SIP's show the EPA which states' air quality programs has the correct components in order to meet the NAAQS (National Ambient Air Quality Standards) and are also designed to prevent air quality deterioration for areas within attainment and to reduce the common pollutants in non-attainment areas to meet the required numbers. The Clean Air Act (CAA), established in the 1970's, requires each individual state to establish their own local air quality control agencies monitored by the EPA. This act was put in place to protect the public's well-being caused by the numerous pollutants within the air.

http://www.simmonsfirm.com/healthy-lung-month-get-the-facts-about-the-clean-air-act/

This image gives a few facts and statistics about the Clean Air Act that was established in 1970. It describes how industrial production is a major contributor to greenhouse gases, how much air humans need on a daily basis, and the number of people at risk of air pollutants. For more information on the Clean Air Act, please visit www.simmonsfirm.com. 



The NAAQS has six "criteria" pollutants along with a set of standards for each one. According to the EPA's website, these six pollutants include: ozone, particulate matter, carbon monoxide, nitrogen oxides, sulfur dioxide, and lead. The EPA describes these pollutants as "criteria" pollutants because they regulate the developing human and environmental health-based criteria that regulates acceptable levels. Human health limits are called primary standards, while environmental and property damage are called secondary standards. Each pollutant is monitored by the EPA with two different kinds of air pollutant trends. The first is air concentration based on concentrations of the pollutant in ambient (outside) air recorded at a various locations throughout the United States, and the second is emissions based from estimates of engineering information from the total amount of tons of the specific pollutant that is released into the air every year.

http://www.eoearth.org/view/article/170853/

This image describes the primary and secondary standards for each of the six criteria air pollutants. This is the NAAQS required levels and averaging time for each pollutant and also describes the required amount for each to be considered an attainment area. 

	Primary Standards		Secondary Standards	Ohio Attainment Status
Pollutant	Level	Averaging Time
Carbon monoxide	9 ppm (10 mg/m3)	Eight-hour	None	Full Attainment
	35 ppm (40 mg/m3)	One-hour	None	Full Attainment
Lead	0.15 µg/m3	Rolling three-month Average	Same	Map
	1.5 µg/m3	Quarterly average	Same	Full Attainment
Nitrogen dioxide	0.053 ppm (100 /m3)	Annual (Arithmetic mean)	Same	Full Attainment
	100 ppb	one-hour	None	Full Attainment
Particulate matter (PM10)	150 µg/m3	24-hour	Same	Full Attainment
Particulate matter (PM2.5)	12.0 µg/m3	2012 annual (Arithmetic mean)	Same	Map
	15.0 µg/m3	1997 annual (Arithmetic mean)	Same	Full Attainment
	35 µg/m3	24-hour	Same	Full Attainment
Ozone	0.075 ppm (2008 std)	Eight-hour	Same	Map
	0.08 ppm (1997 std)	Eight-hour	Same	Full Attainment
	0.12 ppm	One-hour	Same	Full Attainment
Sulfur dioxide	75 ppb	One-hour	None	Map

http://www.epa.state.oh.us/dapc/general/naaqs.aspx

This chart indicates which levels of the criteria pollutants are in full attainment in Ohio and which levels are in non-attainment, along with a map of where each non-attainment area is located throughout the state of Ohio. 

In the state of Ohio, the EPA classifieds this state as "full attainment"for most of the state, besides a few areas. Carbon monoxide levels in Ohio have the appropriate levels of 9 ppm per eight hours and 35 ppm for one hour. Lead levels in the state of Ohio have full attainment at 1.5 micro-grams per cubic meter of air for a quarterly average, but the 0.15 micro-grams per cubic meter of air for a rolling three month period have non-attainment areas in Cleveland, Logan County, and Fulton County. For Nitrogen Dioxide, it has full attainment levels for 0.053 ppm annually, and 100 ppb for one hour. Levels of particulate matter at PM10 for 150 micro-grams per cubic meter of air for a 24 hour period is at full attainment and the particulate matter at PM2.5 for 15.0 and 35 micro-grams per cubic meter of air, but the particulate matter at PM 2.5 for 12 micro-grams per cubic meter has non-attainment areas located near Cleveland, OH for the counties of Cuyahoga, OH and Lorain, OH. Ozone levels in Ohio are at full attainment for 0.08 ppm per eight hours and 0.12 ppm per one hour, while ozone levels at 0.075 ppm per eight hours has a non-attainment area in Ohio located in Cleveland/Akron/Lorain (includes the counties of Lorain, Medina, Cuyahoga, Summit, Portage, Geauga, Lake, and Ashtabula), Columbus (includes the counties of Madison, Franklin, Delaware, Knox, Licking, and Fairfield) and Cincinnati area (includes the countries of Butler, Warren, Clinton, Hamilton, Clermont, Campbell, Dearborn, Boone, and Kenton). Sulfur dioxide levels at 75 ppb at one hour have non-attainment areas in Ohio including the counties of Campbell, Clermont, Morgan, Washington, Jefferson, and Lake.

http://blog.cleveland.com/metro/2010/11/air_pollution_expected_to_be_h.html

This image shows the air pollution across the downtown area of Cleveland, OH. This is known to occur more prominent when temperature inversions trap the air pollution from mobile sources that are closest to the ground.

https://www.ohio.edu/mechanical/thermo/Intro/Chapt.1_6/steamplant/GavinLPT/Gavin.jpg

This image shows the Gavin power plant located in Chestire, OH that is proposed to service about 10,000 homes near Athens, OH. This plant is considered the largest power plant in Ohio that runs on coal power and is owned and operated by AEP (American Electric Power). 

The air quality in Ohio is regulated by the NAAQS's six criteria pollutants, but is also monitored by regulatory emissions reports every 15th of April. These reports identify the emission quality and quantity of the previous year. Also, Ohio EPA is regulated by obtaining air pollution control permits to monitor and estimate exactly how much of the criteria pollutants are being emitted into the each year.


Sources:
http://www.epa.state.oh.us/dapc/sip/sip.aspx